Programs that support the mental health and wellbeing of children with incarcerated parents

Introduction

Parental incarceration can negatively impact children’s mental health, wellbeing and education. To address these impacts, it is important to provide programs and supports that cater to the specific needs of children whose parents are or have been incarcerated.

Parental incarceration refers to any kind of custodial confinement of a parent by the criminal justice system (i.e. sentenced to a period of detention or held on remand awaiting their trial), except being held overnight in police cells (Murray et al., 2012).

On 30 September 2024, there were 44,316 adults incarcerated in prisons in Australia (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2024). There is no official count of the number of Australian children with parents who are incarcerated. However, two in five prison entrants have reported they had children in the community who depended on them for their basic needs (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2023).

Parental incarceration is considered an adverse childhood experience (ACE) that can have negative and ongoing impacts on children’s mental health and wellbeing (Legislative Council Legal and Social Issues Committee, 2022; Skinner-Osei & Levenson, 2018). It is therefore important to ensure that children experiencing parental incarceration have access to evidence-based support programs. These programs can generate positive mental health, wellbeing and social outcomes by strengthening family relationships, developing resilience in children and minimising the risk of harm (Norman & Enebrink, 2023; Saunders, 2017).

This resource provides an overview of the research evidence on various program types for children of incarcerated parents. It also outlines the program types that may be most effective in supporting children and program elements that may contribute to positive mental health and wellbeing.

What are the impacts on children’s outcomes when their parents are incarcerated?

The impacts of parental incarceration on children are numerous and can affect their social, emotional and physical wellbeing (Brookes & Daly, 2024; Hunsucker, 2024; Norman & Enebrink, 2023; Saunders, 2017; Skinner-Osei & Levenson, 2018). Children’s outcomes from parental incarceration can include:

• internalising behaviours (e.g. emotional problems, depressive symptoms)
• externalising behaviours (e.g. aggression, hostility)
• reduced school readiness among pre-school children.

The nature and extent of the impacts are shaped by broader factors in the child’s life, including:

• their relationship with the parent prior to incarceration
• experiences of family violence or maltreatment
• social disadvantages such as poverty (Christmann & Mairean, 2012; Norman & Enebrink, 2023; Saunders, 2017).

How can programs support children who have experienced parental incarceration?

Evidence indicates that targeted supports and programs for children affected by parental incarceration can promote positive outcomes, including improving a child’s sense of self, positive coping strategies and improved social outcomes (Hunsucker, 2024; Mehri et al., 2024; Thulstrup & Karlsson, 2017). Various program types can support these outcomes, including community programs, mentoring programs, and school-based supports (see Table 1).

The current evidence on the benefits of programs for children with incarcerated parents primarily focuses on adolescence up to 17 years of age, with limited evidence focusing specifically on young children aged 0–12 years. In addition, most existing evidence is from the United States (US). The US criminal justice, health and welfare systems differ from those in Australia. However, findings from studies undertaken in a US context may still provide some general guidance on best practice.

The following table provides an overview of program types for children of incarcerated parents (Axelson et al., 2020; Brookes & Daly, 2024; Flynn, 2014; Hanley et al., 2024; Hunsucker, 2024; Merhi et al., 2024; Norman & Enebrink, 2023; Saunders, 2017; Thulstrup & Karlsson, 2017; Walters & Dallaire, 2024).

Table 1. Programs or support types available for children with incarcerated parents

Implications for practice and conclusion

Practitioners and people working with children have an important role to play in identifying those who require support, directing them to the most appropriate services and delivering programs based on the best available evidence. Using services that consider the child’s context can support positive mental health and reduce the risk of compounding harm.

It is important to note that children’s support requirements can change at different stages of parental incarceration. For example, children who have recently experienced their parent being arrested may require different support services than children whose parents are experiencing ongoing or multiple imprisonments. Different supports may also be required as children prepare for a parent’s return home from prison (Axelson et al., 2020).

The following recommendations for programs and services are based on existing literature from Australian and US contexts (Axelson et al., 2020; Brookes & Daly, 2024; Hanley et al., 2024; Hunsucker, 2024; Merhi et al., 2024; Norman & Enebrink, 2023; Saunders, 2017; Skinner-Osei & Levenson, 2018; Walters & Dallaire, 2024):

• Adopt a trauma-informed approach: This allows children to be understood in a broader context that may include multiple ACEs. Trauma-informed programs can provide a sense of stability and support for children.
• Adopt a strengths-based framework: This promotes child wellbeing rather than focusing on deficits. A strengths-based approach focuses on a child’s or family’s existing knowledge and abilities. Such an approach is particularly important due to the stigma and shame often experienced by children when a parent has been involved in the criminal justice system.
• Involve trusted role models: Programs that strengthen relationships with adult role models in the family and community, such as mentoring programs, can contribute positively to children’s mental wellbeing and self-esteem. These programs can also provide children with a trusted adult they can turn to for support or advice.
• Provide access to peer support: Children who engage in group and community support programs that include other children in similar circumstances can gain beneficial outcomes for their mental health and wellbeing. Peer support can improve social and emotional wellbeing, self-esteem and resilience.

How this resource was developed

This article summarises evidence and literature gathered from peer-reviewed academic articles and grey literature on programs that improve the mental health outcomes of children with incarcerated parents. The author acknowledges the input of Dr Mandy Truong and Dr Melissa Willoughby in the writing of this article.

Further reading and resources

From Emerging Minds:

• ‘Invisible’ children of imprisoned parents at risk of falling through the cracks
• Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) toolkit
• In focus: Trauma informed care

Other organisations:

• The National Information Centre on Children of Offenders (UK-based) includes research, resources and guidance to support practitioners supporting children and families impacted by incarceration.
• Shine for Kids is an organisation that supports children and young people affected by the criminal justice system and provides support programs for children with incarcerated parents.
• Vacro is an organisation that supports adults in contact with Victoria’s criminal justice system and their families.
• Sisters Inside is an organisation that supports criminalised women and girls and their children, both inside and outside prison.